---
title: "7. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors: Properties"
author: "Michael Friendly"
date: "`r Sys.Date()`"
output: rmarkdown::html_vignette
vignette: >
  %\VignetteIndexEntry{7. Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors: Properties}
  %\VignetteEngine{knitr::rmarkdown}
  %\VignetteEncoding{UTF-8}
---

```{r, echo = FALSE}
knitr::opts_chunk$set(
  warning = FALSE,
  message = FALSE
)
options(digits=4)
```
## Setup

This vignette uses an example of a $3 \times 3$ matrix to illustrate some properties of
eigenvalues and eigenvectors.  We could consider this to be the variance-covariance matrix of three variables,
but the main thing is that the matrix is **square** and **symmetric**, which guarantees that the eigenvalues, $\lambda_i$ are
real numbers. Covariance matrices are also **positive semi-definite**, meaning
that their eigenvalues are non-negative, $\lambda_i \ge 0$.

```{r matA}
A <- matrix(c(13, -4, 2, -4, 11, -2, 2, -2, 8), 3, 3, byrow=TRUE)
A
```

Get the eigenvalues and eigenvectors using `eigen()`;  this returns a named list, with eigenvalues named `values` and
eigenvectors named `vectors`.
```{r eigA}
ev <- eigen(A)
# extract components
(values <- ev$values)
(vectors <- ev$vectors)
```
The eigenvalues are always returned in decreasing order, and each column of `vectors` corresponds to the
elements in `values`.


## Properties of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
The following steps illustrate the main properties of eigenvalues and eigenvectors.  We use the notation
$A = V' \Lambda V$ to express the decomposition of the matrix $A$, where $V$ is the matrix of
eigenvectors and $\Lambda = diag(\lambda_1, \lambda_2, \dots, \lambda_p)$ is the diagonal matrix
composed of the ordered eigenvalues, $\lambda_1 \ge \lambda_2 \ge \dots \lambda_p$.

0. Orthogonality: Eigenvectors are always orthogonal, $V' V = I$.  `zapsmall()` is handy for cleaning up tiny values.
```{r orthog}
crossprod(vectors)
zapsmall(crossprod(vectors))
```


1. trace(A) = sum of eigenvalues, $\sum \lambda_i$.
```{r trace}
library(matlib)   # use the matlib package
tr(A)
sum(values)
```

2. sum of squares of A = sum of squares of eigenvalues, $\sum \lambda_i^2$.
```{r ssq}
sum(A^2)
sum(values^2)
```

3. determinant = product of eigenvalues, $\det(A) = \prod \lambda_i$. This means that the determinant will be zero
if any $\lambda_i = 0$.
```{r prod}
det(A)
prod(values)
```

4. rank = number of non-zero eigenvalues
```{r rank}
R(A)
sum(values != 0)
```


5. eigenvalues of the inverse $A^{-1}$ = 1/eigenvalues of A. The eigenvectors are the same, except for order, because eigenvalues
are returned in decreasing order.
```{r solve}
AI <- solve(A)
AI
eigen(AI)$values
eigen(AI)$vectors
```

6. There are similar relations for other powers of a matrix, $A^2, \dots A^p$: `values(mpower(A,p)) = values(A)^p`, where 
`mpower(A,2) = A %*% A`, etc.
```{r}
eigen(A %*% A)
eigen(A %*% A %*% A)$values
eigen(mpower(A, 4))$values

```

